Chapter : 13

Copyright Law and Fair Use

What Is Copyright?

Simply put, "copyright is a legal device that provides the creator of a work of art or literature, or a work that conveys information or ideas, the right to control how the work is used" (Fishman, 2008, p. 6).The intent of copyright is to advance the progress of knowledge by giving an author of a work an economic incentive to create new works (Loren, 2000, para. 12).

What Can be Copyrighted?

Tangible, original expressions can be copyrighted. This means, for example, that a verbal presentation that is not recorded or written down cannot be copyrighted. However, anything that is tangible can be copyrighted. There are three fundamental requirements for something to be copyrighted, according to the United States Copyright Office (2008, p. 3):

• Fixation:
• The item must be fixed in some way. The manner of fixation may be just about anything. For example, fixation occurs if something is written on a piece of paper, posted online, or stored on a computer or phone, or on an audio or video device.
• Originality:
• The work must be original. Originality includes a novel or a student's e-mail message to a professor. Both are considered examples of original expression.
• It is not necessary for the work to be completely original. Works may be combined, adapted, or transformed in new ways that would make them eligible for copyright protection.
• Minimal Creativity:
• The work must include something that is above and beyond the original. Verbatim use is not considered original. Reference to the original work that is used to discuss a new concept would be considered original, however.
• Creativity need only be extremely slight for the work to be eligible for protection. The law merely states this is "original works of authorship" (United States Copyright Office, 2008, p. 3).

What Cannot be Copyrighted?

• Works in the public domain:
• Ideas are in the public domain.
• Facts are in the public domain.
• Words, names, slogans, or other short phrases also cannot be copyrighted. However, slogans, for example, can be protected by trademark law.
• Blank forms.
• Government works, which include:
• Judicial opinions.
• Public ordinances.
• Administrative rulings.

• What Does Copyright Protect?

  Copyright provides authors fairly substantial control over their work. The four basic protections are:
  • The right to make copies of the work.
  • The right to sell or otherwise distribute copies of the work.
  • The right to prepare new works based on the protected work.
  • The right to perform the protected work (such as a stage play or painting) in public (U.S. Copyright Office, 2008, p. 1).

  What is Fair Use?

  Fair use is the most significant limitation on the copyright holder's exclusive rights (United States Copyright Office, 2010, para. 1). Deciding whether the use of a work is fair IS NOT a science. There are no set guidelines that are universally accepted. Instead, the individual who wants to use a copyrighted work must weigh four factors:

  The purpose and character of the use:

  • Is the new work merely a copy of the original? If it is simply a copy, it is not as likely to be considered fair use.
  • Does the new work offer something above and beyond the original? Does it transform the original work in some way? If the work is altered significantly, used for another purpose, appeals to a different audience, it more likely to be considered fair use (NOLO, 2010, para. 6). Recent case law has increasingly focused on transformative use to make fair use determinations – for a discussion of this topic see Lultschik, 2010.
  • Is the use of the copyrighted work for nonprofit or educational purposes? The use of copyrighted works for nonprofit or educational purposes is more likely to be considered fair use (NOLO, 2010, para. 6).

  The nature of the copyrighted work:

  • Is the copyrighted work a published or unpublished work? Unpublished works are less likely to be considered fair use.
  • Is the copyrighted work out of print? If it is, it is more likely to be considered fair use.
  • Is the work factual or artistic? The more a work tends toward artistic expression, the less likely it will be considered fair use (NOLO, 2010, para. 9).

  The amount and substantiality of the portion used:

  • The more you use, the less likely it will be considered fair use.
  • Does the amount you use exceed a reasonable expectation? If it approaches 50 percent of the entire work, it is not likely to be considered a fair use of the copyrighted work.
  • Is the particular portion used likely to adversely affect the author's economic gain? If you use the  "heart" or "essence" of a work, it is less likely your use will be considered fair (NOLO, 2010, para. 13).

  The effect of use on the potential market for the copyrighted work:

  • The more the new work differs from the original, the less likely it will be considered an infringement.
  • Does the work appeal to the same audience as the original? If the answer is yes, it will likely be considered an infringement.
  • Does the new work contain anything original? If it does, it is more likely the use of the copyrighted material will be seen as fair use (NOLO, 2010, para. 11).

  What are the Rules for Fair Use for Instructors?

  Copying by instructors must meet tests for brevity and spontaneity:

  • Brevity refers to how much of the work you can copy.
  • Spontaneity refers to how many times you can copy and how much planning it would take to otherwise seek and obtain permission from a copyright holder (U.S. Copyright Office, 2009, p. 6).

  According to the rule, the need to copy should occur closely in time to the need to use the copies. If you use something repeatedly, it is less likely to be considered fair use. The expectation is that you will obtain permission from the copyright holder as soon as it is feasible. Using something over a period of multiple semesters or years is not within the spirit of the fair use exception.
  In addition, there are recommendations for what the U.S. Copyright Office calls "special" works.

  • "Certain works in poetry, prose, or in ‘poetic prose’ which often combine language with illustrations and which are intended sometimes for children and at other times for a more general audience fall short of 2,500 words in their entirety" (U.S. Copyright Office, 2009, p. 6).
  • Special works should never be copied in their entirety.
  • An excerpt of no more than two pages or 10 percent, whichever is less, is the rule for special works (U.S. Copyright Office, 2009, p. 6).

  The use of the copies should be for one course at one school. The copies should include a notice of copyright acknowledging the author of the work (U.S. Copyright Office, 2009, p. 7).
  UMUC recommends that its faculty and instructors consider both the special guidelines for instructors and take into account the four factors that are used to evaluate fair use when they are deciding what and how much of a copyrighted work to use.

Chapter : 12

Knowledge Management

The traditional view of knowledge management has treated knowledge in terms of prepackaged or taken-for-granted interpretations of information. However, this static and contextual knowledge works against the generation of multiple and contradictory viewpoints that are necessary for meeting the challenge posed by wicked environments. - Dr. Yogesh Malhotra in Toward a Knowledge Ecology for Organizational White-Waters

Data is organized into information by combining data with prior knowledge and the person's self-system to create a knowledge or mental representation (Marzano, 1998). This is normally done to solve a problem or make sense of a phenomenon.

This knowledge representation is consistently changing as we receive new inputs, such as new learnings, feelings, and experiences. This causes the knowledge representation to change due to our brains being branched or interconnected to other representations, rather than layered.

Since our brains are branched, knowledge is dynamic, that is, our various knowledge representations change and grow with each new experience and learning.

Due to the complexity of knowledge representations, they not easily captured by documents, rather they reside within the creator of the representation. In many cases, the knowledge representation stays within the creator, in which case the “flow of knowledge” stops.

A Knowledge Management (KM) system, which may be as simple as a story or as complex as a million-dollar computer program, attempts to capture a snapshot of the person's knowledge representation. This is called knowledge harvesting. In the case of a story, the knowledge representation is passed onto others by means of a verbal snapshot. In the case of a computer program, it resides in a database that may be utilized by others. It is only a “snapshot” as further experiences and learnings within the creator may change the knowledge representation, while the static snapshot remains the same. In addition, it is only a partial snapshot as the full context of the original knowledge source is almost never fully captured.

Others may make use of the knowledge representation snapshot by using the story or tapping into the KM system and then combining it with their prior knowledge. This in turn forms a new or modified knowledge representation. This knowledge representation is then applied to solve a personal or business need, or explain a phenomenon.

Depending upon the KM system and the novelty of the situation, a snapshot of this new knowledge representation may or may not be entered into the system.

Knowledge Management Comes Quite Naturally to Humans

While there are normally only five ways to organize information — LATCH (Location, Alphabet, Time, Category, or Hierarchy), these five ways have a lot of versatility (Wurman, 2001). For example, a youngster with a toy car collection may sort them by color, make, type, size, type of play, or a dozen other divisions. The youngster can even make up categories as new divisions, play activities, or wants appear. However, a computer is considered "intelligent" if it can sort a collection into one category. Yet, many organizations are placing their bets on computer systems due to the amount of data such systems can hold and the speed at which it can sort and distribute once such categories and data are made known to it.

Knowledge Management Framework

Knowledge Acquisition

This is the gathering of knowledge. Do not try to gather every bit of knowledge throughout your organization... there is way too much! Find one or two good sources to work from. For example, Executive Edge (Dec 00/Jan 01) reported that Hill & Knowlton, a New York based public relations firm, that has offices and clients scattered across the globe, found that an enormous amount of its knowledge was tied up in emails. So, it implemented a system that allows strategically important email to be saved in a data repository that can be called upon by others when needed.

Knowledge Storage and Organization

This is where the knowledge will be stored. Much of it today is stored in paper based documents, such as books and manuals. However, this makes it hard to update and distribute. Paper based storage systems also lack dynamic storage systems. For example, a youngster's toy car collection can be categorized in a number of ways to suit his or her needs, while a manual is generally organized by chapters and key words . Moore's Law holds that the maximum processing power of a microchip at a given price doubles roughly every 18 months. In other words, computers become faster, but the price of a given level of computing power halves, which gives computers their organizing power.

Knowledge Distribution

A mechanism, such as an Intranet or Internet, allows the data in the repository to be quickly disseminated throughout an organization. Bob Metcalfe, the inventor of Ethernet technology (the enabler that allowed the information genie to jump out of the bottle), has a law named after him — Metcalfe's Law — the asset value of a computer network increases exponentially as each new node (individual user) is added to it. This is because each new user brings along a wealth of new linkages and resources, so the total network value grows far richer than the mere sum of its parts. This is what gives the Internet its power. Gilder's Law — the total bandwidth of communication systems will triple every 12 months, describes a decline in the unit cost of the net, which in turn allows more information to be distributed over the net.

Knowledge Application

This is the actual use of the knowledge and is generally measured by its effectiveness and usefulness. Thus, if you have bad information going in, you will have bad information coming out. Note: in most instances, the users and the knowledge drivers are the one and the same, that is, the users not only withdraw the information, but they must also input the information. To insure that good information goes in, involve the users from day one in the planning, design, and building of the system. It needs to mimic the way the users perform their tasks; not the way you perform your tasks. If they find it clumsy and hard to use, they will not use it. Build it by using metaphors from their working environment, not by using buzzwords from your environment.

Extracting Knowledge

Jeffery Pfeffer and Robert Sutton (2000) write that companies have wasted hundreds of millions on worthless knowledge management systems:

• The most valuable employees often have the greatest disdain for knowledge management. Curators badger these employees to enter what they know into the system, even though few people will ever use the information.
• The managers of these systems know a lot about technology, but little about how people actually use knowledge on the job.
• Tacit knowledge is extremely difficult to capture into these systems, yet it is more critical to task performance than explicit knowledge.
• Knowledge is of little use unless it is turned into products, services, innovations, or process improvements.
• Knowledge management systems work best when the people who generate the knowledge, are the same people who store it, explain it to others, and coach them as they try to implement it. These systems must be managed by the people who are implementing what is known, not those who understand information technology.

For a knowledge management strategy, see Capturing Lessons Learned with an AAR.

Next Step

Click on the various parts of the chart to learn more about that topic

Chapter : 11

Example of information systems in Cannon

Environmentally Conscious Management System

Management information systems (MIS) are a combination of hardware and software used to process information automatically. Commonly, MIS are used within organizations to allow many individuals to access and modify information. In most situations, the managementinformation system mainly operates behind the scenes, and the user community is rarely involved or even aware of the processes that are handled by the system.

Chapter : 10

Pros And Cons of Information Technology

Information Technology Pros

1. The world got flexibility

What we think, do or plan must be shared with our co-workers, colleagues and friends. The internet technology has advanced this system to a great extent. The telephone idea (by Alexander Graham Bell) has been modified and made as Cell Phones to increase more flexibility in communication and talk to our dear fellows whenever we require!

2. The sense of responsibility has increased

Let us take ‘Barack Obama- USA President’ as the figure. With the use of networking sites (Twitter and Facebook), blogs, social bookmarking, the leader can approach to the world whenever necessary and we can receive the news and updates which he has done (or wants to be done by us) within a very short period.

3. Easy thinking & evolution in transportation

To think and to research, we need resources to find what our past people has thought, what quotes they have left for us (+information + theory). We can find them by a single click in Search engines (specially Google, Yahoo!). By getting a clear cut idea, we get the chance of contributing the world with new technological ideas and inventions and share what we have learnt throughout our lives.

And throughout the ages, it helped us to evolute the transportation strategy which helps us to visit from a place to another by (Roads, highways, air, water and in the skies!)

4. Saves thousand of lives daily

So, by the point heading I hope you understand I am referring towards Medical Sector development. Each day people are getting relief by the perfect use of Medicine, Hospital Technology with addition of (X-Rays, Laser Treatments) and more on the queue. By the combination of the World Health Organization, various fatal diseases can be overcome and just expelled from specified countries by quick plans and ideas.

5. Increase the sense of Human Rights

The technology can remind of our human rights, basic needs and give updates where relief or worldwide help is necessary. During earthquakes, terrible floods, while co-operation is necessary the World Wide Web can help us to collect the donation by a desired amount.

It is not possible to just figure out everything about the good and bad sides of Information and Technology within a page and article as because it has mixed with every aspects and corners of our lives. Rather, let us look at the side effects, bad sides (cons) which IT-sectors have brought to the Human Society.

Information Technology Cons

1. It has taken away people’s Privacy

As IT-Sectors have wined the people’s heart worldwide. People are here to share and store any kind of information, private date in their hard drives and private online databases. But due to some Cyber-Criminals, nothing is SO Safe both online and offline. If someone becomes a bit careless, s/he may needs to pay high for it. (It’s serious).

2. The online community is not safe for Family anymore

Children under age may often share Cell Numbers, Private Email Address which can be hacked by people and can pass it to the criminals who have a blue-print to harm the society. And people are loosing credit card privacy and other payment processing options. Again, there are some sites created by Nasty Guys, which can lead under eighteen teenagers to a different path – That Is Going To Bring Harms To The Nation.

3. It is going to damage a Human’s Natural Power

We can think, gather human principles (ethical knowledge) and make co-operative relationships between friends and families. But due to harmful aspects of (IT) people are becoming fully technological based. And it can bring huge damage to the society as its taking away the natural thoughts and organic ideas.

4. It can bring World Destruction without Efficient Administration

This is an extra point which I am writing by remembering various Science Fictions. Great scholars have though about the matter wisely. Til now, we (humans) are possessing the leading place in the world and administering the computer technology. But a day MAY come when the technology is going to administer us in all aspects. It may probably happen that we are converted to the slaves of Technology.

So, by this cons I am not trying to tell that Technology is here to bring harms only, because I myself is a technological man who passes 24 hours browsing computer and talking on phones. But as a part of human society we need to give up a look at the both sides of IT.

Chapter : 9

Characteristics of good websites

http://www.amazon.com/

• Content

Quality content on your website can provide users with the information they are looking for. Content also allows you to establish yourself as an expert in your field. When your website visitors are looking to make a purchase they will feel more comfortable with your products and services if you have built their trust and confidence through what you have written on your website.

Keyword-filled content is also crucial for getting high search engine rankings. Most internet users trust search engines to help them find what they are looking for. Taking the time to create high quality content can have huge payoffs through increased search engine rankings.

• Simple and Attractive Design

The design of a good website should be simple, yet professional. The design should not take away or distract from the content. Websites with excessive use of Flash and moving images can be very distracting. Use design to help you get your message to visitors, not to distract them from the message. Colors should not be hard on the eyes, and text should be easy to read.

• Easy Navigation

Navigation and links provide opportunities to incorporate design elements in to the website; however, navigation schemes should not be so elaborate that the user has trouble knowing where to click to move to another page. The average visitor’s attention span is a matter of seconds, and if it is hard to find what he or she is looking for, you will loose that visitor very quickly. Links to your most important pages should be easily found on every page. A good rule of thumb is that every page should be accessible in two clicks from your home page (this may not be possible with larger sites).

• Unique

The most successful websites will stand out from the crowd. There are a number of was that you can make your website stand out: better design, high quality articles, a blog, a newsletter, some type of resource or tool. Find something that would be appealing to your target market.

• Fresh

Having a website that changes or is updated frequently will encourage repeat visitors. Repeat visitors will be more loyal and more likely to buy. There are a few different options for keeping your site fresh:

1- Update the site and add content occasionally – This will require you to either pay a designer or do the work yourself.

2 – Use a blog – With a blog you can add content to your website from any computer with an internet connection. All you’ll have to do is login and type. No special software or skills are required.

3 – RSS feeds – With RSS feeds you can add news headlines, weather, stock tickers, etc. to your website. Additionally, you can add content from most blogs to your site with RSS. The benefit of RSS feeds is that once in place they will automatically update.

• Optimized

A successful website will be search engine-friendly. Optimization includes things like using page titles and meta tags for all of your pages. Using headers and alt tags for images can also help optimization and accessibility. Even a website that is strong in other areas but weak in optimization may be hard for users to find.

Bias Information

   An example of information bias is believing that the more information that can be acquired to make a decision, the better, even if that extra information is irrelevant for the decision.

Examples of information bias are prevalent in medical diagnosis. Subjects in experiments concerning medical diagnostic problems show an information bias in which they seek information that is unnecessary in deciding the course of treatment.

Chapter : 8

How Internet Search Engines Work

    The good news about the Internet and its most visible component, the World Wide Web, is that there are hundreds of millions of pages available, waiting to present information on an amazing variety of topics. The bad news about the Internet is that there are hundreds of millions of pages available, most of them titled according to the whim of their author, almost all of them sitting on servers with cryptic names. When you need to know about a particular subject, how do you know which pages to read? If you're like most people, you visit an Internet search engine.
Internet search engines are special sites on the Web that are designed to help people find information stored on other sites. There are differences in the ways various search engines work, but they all perform three basic tasks:

• They search the Internet -- or select pieces of the Internet -- based on important words.
• They keep an index of the words they find, and where they find them.
• They allow users to look for words or combinations of words found in that index.

Early search engines held an index of a few hundred thousand pages and documents, and received maybe one or two thousand inquiries each day. Today, a top search engine will index hundreds of millions of pages, and respond to tens of millions of queries per day. In this article, we'll tell you how these major tasks are performed, and how Internet search engines put the pieces together in order to let you find the information you need on the Web.
5 EXAMPLE OF SEARCH ENGINES

* http://www.wikio.com/

* http://www.exalead.com/search/

* http://www.collarity.com/

* http://www.ditto.com/

* http://swoogle.umbc.edu/

Chapter : 7

The ideas to help and support the flooding crisis

 In my idea. I think the best thing that I can do now it's encourage them as I did in mind, and I 've donated some my money for supply fund of help flooding ,because I just a little girl I cann't do more this ,except follow flooding's news and every time when I see the dog or any animal in flood. I feel very sorry for its ,because it's just a animal that cann't help itself and someone ignore its. so ! though I just a girl ,but I often donate my little money to help them in donate's box. I belive that if everyone cooperate to donate some their money.In soon it going to be the huge fund to help them.

 

"So in my imagine if I could do" I will make the huge plastic boat which carry a huge of people in it. Some say that it's stupid idea ,but in fact it could be. 

It's must to more Big !!!